認知心理学5. Long-term memory: 長期記憶

認知心理学もくじ

Long-Term Memory

• Memory that has no capacity limits and lasts from minutes to an entire lifetime (CP 103)
• Capacity: thought to be unlimited
• Duration: minutes to a lifetime
• How is information transferred from STM to LTM?

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

• control Processes
  • Strategies for encoding memories.
  • A strategy that determines how information is processed (CP 104)
  1. rehearsal: repetition of information.
     1. Repeating verbal information to keep it active in STM or to transfer it into LTM (CP 104)
  2. coding: Integrating info with other easily retrievable knowledge.
     1. Semantic elaboration of information to make it easier to remember (CP 105)
  3. imaging: create visual images to remember verbal information.
     1. Creating visual images to make material easier to remember (CP 105)

Rehearsal and Learning

• rote learning:
  • learning due to repetition rather than understanding.
  • Learning by repetition rather than through understanding (CP 105)
• Rundus (1971)
  • Lists of 20 nouns presented one at a time in five second intervals.
  • Free recall Task

Rundus (1971)

• serial position effect

系列位置効果(serial position effect)というのは、記憶課題として『記銘リスト』を記憶する場合に、リストの項目数と関係なくリストの最初と最後の数項目の再生率が、リストの中間部分の再生率よりも高くなるという効果です。記憶する情報の相対的な位置（順番）によって、再生率が変化する効果のことを系列位置効果といいます。
リストの最初の項目が再生されやすい効果を『初頭効果(primacy effect)』といいますが、この効果が生まれる原因は、情報が短期貯蔵庫に初めに格納されるため、繰り返しリハーサルが行われて長期貯蔵庫に転送されやすいからだと考えられています。
リストの最後の項目が再生されやすい効果を『新近性効果(recency effect)』といいますが、この効果が生まれる原因は、最後に情報が短期貯蔵庫に格納されたため、リハーサルバッファーのスロット（保存場所）から直接的に情報を再生できるからだと考えられています。
(短期記憶のメカニズムを説明する基礎理論)

• • better recall for words at the beginning and end of list.
  • The ability to recall words at the beginning and end of a list better than words in the middle of the list (CP 106)
  1. primacy effect
     1. better recall for words at beginning of list.
     2. The better recall of words at the beginning of a list(CP 106)
  2. recency effect
     1. better recall for words at end of list.
     2. The better recall of words at the end of a list (CP 106)

• Primacy effect explained by rote learning.
• Rote learning cannot explain the recency effect.
• Postman and Phillips (1965)
  • Interpolated math task before recall.
  • recency effect disappears.

Processing stages in LTM

1. Acquisition
2. Retention
3. Retrieval

Acquisition

• Dunlosky and Nelson (1994): paired associations task.
  • 53-G, 31-Q, 87-S…
• 1/2 of the list rehearsal and 1/2 with imagery.
  • Rehearsal 20% correct.
  • Imagery 59% correct.
• Immediate versus delayed judgment.
• Retrieval Fluency: how easily an item can be recalled.

Retention Intervals

• ''experience-base judgments''
  • how easily an item was recalled in the past.
• ''theory-based judgments''
  • understanding that retention intervals influence retrieval.

• Koriat et. al. (2004)
  • Ss studied 60 paired associations.
  • Tested either immediately, 1-day later, or 1-week later.
  • All Ss predicted they would recall 40% of the list.

Retrieval

• Recovering information from LTM
  • Depends on the effectiveness of the strategy.
• tip-of-the-tongue state (TOT)
  • you know the information is in LTM but it can’t be retrieved.
  • A retrieval state in which a person feels he or she knows the information but cannot immediately retrieve it (CP 114)

Studying Retrieval

• Laboratory Studies - Ss asked to recall words that might elicit TOT.
  • Ex: name instrument that uses the sun and stars to navigate?”
• naturalistic study:
  • Ss record events that occur when TOT happens naturally.
  • A study of the tip-of-the-tongue state in which people record these events as they occur outside the laboratory (CP 115)
• Results show some consistent findings.
  1. Occur frequently and increase with age.
  2. Able to retrieve words that are similar in meaning or sound.
  3. About half the TOT’s are resolved in 1 min.
• spontaneous retrieval:
  • Occurs without making a conscious effort to retrieve.
  • A retrieval that occurs without making a conscious effort to recall information (CP 115)

Retrieval

• Krane, Ransom, & Morris (1979)
  • Ss learned 36 paired-associates that were of four different types.
    • Stimulus: a single digit
    • Response: Triads of concrete words, concrete pictures, abstract words, abstract pictures.

Krane, Ransom, & Morris (1979)

For example:

• What type of info from LTM interfere with info in STM?

• Results:
  • Recall of 5 letter quintogram:
    • Worse for abstract words
    • Then for concrete words
    • No interference for pictures.

• So what does this suggest?
• Retrieving pictures from LTM does not interfere with verbal info in STM
• Using imagery for coding is best for retrieval.

Types of LTM

explicit memory

• Memory evaluated by direct memory tests(CP 120)
• Our memory for facts and events.

専門用語の定義や客観的な知見など学習行動によって身に付ける『一般的な知識教養』に関する記憶のことを『意味記憶 (semantic memory)』といいます。
自分自身の直接的な過去の経験や他人の過去の思い出など『時間的・空間的な文脈』で表現できる出来事（エピソード）に関する記憶のことを『エピソード記憶 (episodic memory)』といいます。
(短期記憶のメカニズムを説明する基礎理論)

• • semantic memory- refers to our general knowledge that is not context dependent.
  • episodic memory- refers to specific events and is context dependent.

implicit memory

本人が明確に意識できない記憶で、意図的な想起もできないが長期的に保存されている無意識的な記憶のことを『潜在記憶(implicit memory)』といいます。
(短期記憶のメカニズムを説明する基礎理論)

• Memory evaluated by indirect memory test (CP 120)
• Memory in which previous experience aids performance without conscious awareness.
  • Skills and Habits - reading or riding a bike.
  • priming - prior information facilitates recognition.
    • facilitation in the detection or recognition of a stimulus by using prior information (CP 124)
  • Conditioned Responses- being afraid of dogs after you have been bitten.
  • Nonassociative Learning- reflex’s?

How do we know they’re separate?

• direct memory test:
  • requires subjects to recall or recognize a past event.
  • A test that asks people to recall or recognize past events (CP 120)
  • explicit memory.

• indirect memory test
  • do not directly ask about past events but is influenced by memory for the past.
  • A test that does not explicitly ask about past events but is influenced by memory of past events (CP 120)
  • implicit memory.

Word Fragmentation Task

• People are more successful at identifying difficult word fragments if they are previously shown a list of words that includes the answers to the fragments.
• The fact that the list is helpful suggests that people have a memory of some of the words on the list, indicating that this task could be used as a test for memory. (CP 120)

Word Stem Completion Task

M E M _  _  _

Warrington and Weiskrantz (1968)

• Amnesic patients’ memories vs. normal people
  • direct memory test:
    • Recognition - Worse
    • Recall - Worse
  • indirect memory test:
    • Word fragment completion: No difference
    • Word stem completion: No difference

Patient HM

• Milner (1960’s)
• Has H.M. draw a picture of an object that was reflected in a mirror.
• Increased accuracy and speed as the number of trials increased.

Processing Differences

• recognition memory (Mandler, 1980)
  • Judgment of Familiarity.
  • Retrieval of when and where an item occurred.
  • Deciding whether an item had previously occurred in a specified context (CP 121)
• Study Material - Visually
• Test Item - Auditory
• Performance decreases
• Conceptually Driven Processes: are influenced by the persons strategies.
  • explicit memory.
  • Reflects top-down processing.
• Data Driven Processes: are influenced by the stimulus.
  • implicit memory.
  • Reflects bottom-up processing.

• conceptually driven process
  • A process that is influenced by a person’s strategies (CP 122)
• data driven process.
  • A process that is influenced by the stimulus material (CP 122)

Episodic vs. Semantic Memory

• episodic memory (explicit memory)
  • Events
    • Tied to a specific event.
    • direct memory test.
    • Turns to semantic memory when event can’t be remembered?
  • Memory of specific events, including when and where they occurred (CP 122)

• semantic memory (explicit memory)
  • Facts
    • Unrelated to specific event.
    • indirect memory test?
  • memory of general knowledge not associated with a particular context (CP 122)

• procedural memory (implicit memory)

手続き記憶は、自転車の乗り方のような手続きに関する記憶で、このような記憶構造をスクリプトとよぶ。例えば、レストランスクリプトは、レストランで食事をする手続き記憶ということになる。
(記憶のメカニズム II)

• • Skills and Actions
  • memory for actions, skills, and operations (CP 123)
  • Knowledge on how to complete a task.
    • It is motor memory.
    • Becomes highly automatic (practice effects)
  • Hard to articulate or is non-conscious.
    • Ex. Why do we find a face attractive?
    • Or why are do we find a joke funny?

Evidence for a separate system

• Damage to the hippocampus effects episodic memory but not procedural.
• Damage to the cerebellum and basil ganglia seems to effect procedural memories.
• Damage to hippocampus : Loss of episodic memory.
• Direct and indirect memory tests suggest that different memories a processed in different areas.
• We can lose episodic memory but retain memory for skills and habits- Striatum
• Amygdala: houses our memory for emotions.
  • Damage can result in capgrass syndrome.

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