認知心理学3. Attention: 注意
today
- How can we function in such stimuli-filled environments?
or
- Why it's hard to pat your head and rub your stomach at the same time.
definition
- attention (注意)
- the selection of and concentration on some aspects of your environment at the exclusion(?) of others.
- Definition has two parts; Selection and concentration.
- selection:
- focusing on the perceptual stimuli that is of interest to us.
- Without selection, we would be overwhelmed by the amount of information coming in.
- And the result would be a slow down in processing and an increase in the number of errors we make.
- The selective aspects of attention: we pay attention to some aspects of our environment and ignore other aspects (CP 46)
- concentration:
- is the mental effort exerted while attending to a stimulus.
- Investing mental effort in one or more tasks (CP 46)
- もしexceedすると, slow down, make more errors
- Example: Talking to friend no one around (very little mental effort). Talking to friend at party (greater mental effort needed to attend).
In the lab
- Cherry (1953)
- Dichotic listening task.
- 右と左で違うメッセージを。一方に集中させ、もう一方の音源が変わったことに気づくかどうか？声を変えたり、言語を変えたり、分野を変えたり。
- We notice changes, but not everything.
- unattended info is filtered out
- Where is the bottleneck?
- Cherry (1953)
- Language: Didn’t Notice
- Direction of Speech: Rarely Noticed.
- Gender of Voice: Noticed Some
- Content Change: Best Detection
- Broadbent (1958)
- Broadbent did a similar study and used digits as the input rather than propositions.
- Reasons: examine similarities between of his results with that of Cherry.
- Look for dissimilarities. Processing and comprehending language is fundamentally different to how we would process digits because language has a set of predefined syntactic rules about how words are grouped together.
- Findings very similar to Cherry.
- Output was either 741-325 or 325-741.
- When asked to repeat the digits in the order they were heard as the interstimulus interval increased, performance got better.
- Input:
| Left Ear | Right Ear |
|---|---|
| 7 | 3 |
| 4 | 2 |
| 1 | 5 |
Early selection theories
- Broadbent’s filter model
-
-
- Its called a bottleneck theory because it is assumed that selection is required when there is more information coming in than can be processed at one time.
- A theory that attempts to explain how people select information when some information-processing stage becomes overloaded with too much information (CP 46)
-
- Broadbent’s filter model
-
- Sensory information enters sensory store. Because of our limited capacity to process the unattended information is lost while a small subset of the information reaches the pattern recognition stage.
- The proposition that a bottleneck (bottleneck theory) occurs at the pattern recognition stage and that attention determines what information reaches the pattern recognition stage (CP 48)
- info come in ,
- unattended info. is filtered out
- attended info. goes pattern recognition
- select what type we want to attend to
- brings into STM
But what about…
Early selection theories
- Treisman's attenuation model (1960)
- shadowing
- An experimental method that requires people to repeat the attended message out loud (CS 49)
- 両耳から違うセンテンスを聞いて、どちらかをシャドーウィング
- shadowing
- Contains two parts:
- Selective filter.
- focus on intensity location what sound comes in, basic types of structure of coming word.
- Dictionary.
- threshold
- minimum intensity needed for recognition; each words are associated with threshold to be recognized.
- The minimal amount of activation required to become consciously aware of a stimulus (CP 50)
-
- This shows a schematic representation of this effect. The height of the arrows represents the subjective loudness of the two messages, and the height of the thresholds represents the loudness that is necessary for recognition of the word. (CP 50)
- しいき値が小さい物は、叫ばれないと気づかなかったり一方で名前は小さい声でも聞こえる。
- Triesman
- filter and pattern recognition
- attenuation
- A decrease in the perceived loudness of an unattended message (CP 50)
- threshold
Late selection theories
- Deutsch & Deutsch (1963) and Norman’s (1968) memory selection model.
- Proposal that the bottleneck (bottleneck theory) occurs when information is selected for memory (CP 51)
- どちらのtheoryも完全ではない。どちらも早くに情報がフィルターされすぎてる
→pattern recognitionがselectionよりも先に行われているというアイディア
So, where is the bottle neck?
- Data is mixed
- Unattended information can be discarded before and after pattern recognition
- Flexibility in attention system.
- multimode theory (Johnston & Heinz, 1978)
- Peoples intentions and the demands of the task determine at which stage selection occurs.
- A theory that proposes that people's intentions and the ''demands of the task determine'' the information processing stage at which information is selected (CP 57)
- 2 important Predictions:
- Selection can occur early or late
- Late selection requires more attentional resources
Johnston and Heinz (1978): Subsidiary task
- Primary task: Listen to two words (one per ear) and say aloud the one that:
- Is spoken by a female
- Is the name of a city
- subsidiary task:
- Press a button when a light flashes
- A task that typically measures how quickly people can react to a target stimulus to evaluate the capacity demands of the primary task (CP 57)
- Question is that which occurs first early in perception?
- city is late because we have to retrieve the info from the memory while gender of the voice does not require that.
automatic processing
- Mental operations that require very minimal capacity (i.e. practice effects).
- Performing mental operations that require very little mental effort (CP 59)
- Posh and Snyder (1975).
- Occurs without conscious awareness.
- Occurs without intention.
- Does not interfere with other mental activities.
- Examples:
- Driving a manual transmission.
- Reading.
- Walking
Stroop, 1935
- stroop effect (ストループ効果)
ストループ効果とは、文字意味と文字色のように同時に目にする二つの情報が干渉しあう現象の事。
(wikipedia)
-
- The finding that it takes longer to name the color of the ink a word is printed in when the word is the name of a competing color (for example, the word red printed in blue ink) (CP 60)
- way to display automatic processing
Automatic vs. Effortful processing
- Automatic
- Fast acting
- Consumes few resources
- だから読みながらほかごとを考えてしまう
- Out of conscious control
- Facilitation effects
- spreading activation (にた言葉とかを考える。)
- Effortful
- Relatively slow
- Consumes resources
- Depends on conscious processes
- Produces facilitation and inhibitory effects
- やればやるほど、というpractice effect、しかしinhibitory takes a lot of resources.
Automatic encoding
- Hasher and Zacks (1979) distinguish between two types of memory activities.
- 1. incidental learning: occurs when we are not trying to consciously learn.
- Learning that occurs when we do not make a conscious effort to learn (CP 60)
- 友達と話しながら歩いててどこを歩いていたか覚えていないのに、次の日に同じようにたどり着けたり、昨日やってたこととかを聞かれて、別に覚えようとしていなかったとしても覚えている。ほとんどのことがこれ。
VS.
- 2. Intentional Learning: occurs with conscious effort to learn.
Incidental
- Automatically encodes certain types of information.
- Frequency: how often different stimuli occur.
- Spatial: Where objects occur in our environment.
- 知らないところを歩いているときに頭にはいるようなこと
- Temporal: when or how long an event occurs.
- 新しい道を走っているときは異様に長く感じるが、帰り道は早く感じたり。
Hasher an Zacks (1979)
- Automatic vs. Effortful Processing.
| Criteria | Automatic Processing | Effortful Processing |
|---|---|---|
| Intention vs. Incidental | no difference | Intentional better |
| Effect of instructions on practice | No effects | Both improve performance |
| Task Interference | No interference | Interference |
| Depression or high arousal | No effects | Decreased performance |
| Developmental trends | None | Decreased performance in young children and elderly |
- criteriaのがどれだけ影響を与えているか。
- 重要なことは、何もAutomatic processingに影響を当てない！
is this supported?
- 大量の違う物のリストをいったん見せられて、その中から一つだけ物を抜いたリストを再び見せられたとき、この理論が正しければ人は何が足りないか分かるはず。
- しかし、そんなことは不可能。
Dividing attention
- Strayer and Johnston, 2001
- Simulated driving study
- 電話を持っていることに問題があるのか、しゃべってることに問題があるのか
- Simulated driving study.
- Track a moving object while:
- Listening to the radio.
- Talk using a hand held phone.
- Talk using a hands free phone.
- Task: Press a button when the red signal appears.
- D.V. : Probability of missing the red signal and RT of button push.
- Results:
- No radio or phone - missed 3% of signals.
- Talking on phone - missed 7% of signals and delayed reaction time.
- Attentional demands due to cell phone use interferes with performance.
