認知心理学1. History and Definitions: 認知心理学の歴史と定義
A definition
- ''cognitive psychology refers to all processes by which sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered and used. -- Ulric Neisser, 1967''
- The study of the mental operations that support people's acquisition and use of knowledge.(CP 2)
- i.e. information processing
Stages of information processing
- The psychological approach that attempts to identify what occurs during the various stages (attention, perception, STM) of processing information. (CP 3)
- sensory memory:
- Provides short-term storage for sensory info. 250 ms. At the end of this time the information is lost or it is identified through pattern recognition.
- The part of memory that holds unanalyzed sensory information for a fraction of a second, proving an opportunity for additional analysis following the physical termination of a stimulus. (CP 3)
- Limited Capacity(simply loose because attention is limited resources.i.e. not going everything in)
- Duration about 250ms
- Sensory input: All the stimuli within our environment.
- filtering mechanism:Two processes are occurring filtering and selection; filter and selection.
- filter:
- determines what information will be recognized and attended to.
- The part of attention in which some perceptual information is blocked out and not recognized, while other information receives attention and is subsequently recognized (CP 4)
- selection:
- refers to the amount of information that can be entered into sensory memory.
- The stage that follows pattern recognition and determines which information a person will try to remember.(CP 4)
- filter:
- short-term memory
- Also has a limited capacity for storing information along with a limited amount of time it can be held (duration). However, we can extend the duration of information within short-term memory through rehearsal. Phone number-remember, 10-digit number you would probably forget without rehearsal.
- Memory that has limited capacity and that lasts only approximately 20 to 30 seconds in the absence of attending to its content. (CP 4)
- Limited Capacity(8±2 without chunking, but can be extended by rehearsal)
- Duration about 20-30 sec
- long-term memory
- Has neither of the limitations seen in both sensory and STM. No limits on the amount of info stored. Nor how long it is stored for.
- Memory that has no capacity limits and lasts from minutes to an entire lifetime. (CP 4)
- Unlimited Capacity (remain forever. but not always being able to access.)
- Unlimited Duration
Transformation processes
- transformation
- Means that we don’t passively experience our surroundings, but instead we actively construct our representations of the world.
- not everything is going to be aware of
- depending of where you focus on.
- i.e. attention (transformation process) -> influence perception.
Types of processing
- bottom-up: Flow of information from sensory memory to LTM. Interpretation is a result of the sensory information.
- sensory -> LTM
- result of sensory info.
- top-down: From LTM towards sensory store. Interpretation is a result of your expectations from prior experience.
- long term -> sensory or STM
- from past experience
- 現実の全てを認識できるわけではないため、過去の経験もつかい、理解するため。
Mental processes
- reduction:
- key stimuli is pulled out of all the background ‘noise’. (figure vs ground) ATTENTION determines what the key elements are in order to interpret a stimulus. Once the selection is made, other information is kept at bay or suppressed.
- pulling out a figure from background noises.
- depend on shift attention.
- 文章を読むときも同じ。
- 全部を全て覚えてる訳ではないが、内容は覚えている。
- Elaboration occurs when we add to the sensory input using our own prior knowledge. This is basically the ''opposite of reduction'' (bringing in stored memories, making inferences). everything to do with long term memory.
- 過去の経験から理解することができる。これらが様々なことを認識し、理解するための重要なツールとなる。
- e.g.: VICTORIAN BOTTLE OPENER. This unusual object is believed to be a Victorian bottle opener. It works in the manner of a hypodermic syringe and extracts the cork by injecting air into the bottle.
Storage
- Memories
- Kohlers (1976)
- “Eht ged desahc eht tac”
- Koler did a study in which he had people read nonsense sentences- eht god desahc eht tac 1 year later he showed them the sentences again and asked people if they remembered them. They didn’t. but the speed at which the sentences were read reveled that they remembered something about the prior event.
- 意味のわからない文章を見せて、数週間後に見せたとき、覚えていないと言うが、初めて見たときよりも早く読む。なぜなら無意識のうちに覚えているから。
- →people do not consciously aware of everything.
recovery processes
- recovery process
- again, we can remember more things than we are actually aware of- for example- when people see this picture for the first time they occasionally have trouble spotting the flamingo. Were you able to spot the flamingo easily or did it take a moment? So your memory is having a large impact on your perception even though you aren’t really aware of it.
- You’ll never be able to ‘not see’ the flamingo again.
Where Did Cognitive Psychology Come From?
- Cognitive Psychology like all psychology can be traced back to philosophers like Aristotle, Descartes, Hume, and Locke.
- Wilhelm Wundt:
- Structuralism is the study of the elements of consciousness. The idea is that conscious experience can be broken down into basic conscious elements. However, there was one inherent flaw with the structuralist approach. Does anybody remember what it is? Introspection. The problem with introspection has do with subject agreement and reliability. Experimental psychologists like multiple observations in order to independently ascertain whether a phenomenon has been experienced. Because psychology often deals with data that are difficult to describe in concrete terms, it is important to make sure that multiple observers can agree independently on a phenomenon that is being experienced. This is referred to as reliability. When subjects view, touch, or taste some stimulus, psychologists go to great lengths to make sure that the subjects are not biased in their report of their experience. Further, agreement among observers in terms of what they are experiencing, is a prerequisite for considering the observations as valid. Unfortunately, Wundt's observers were students trained by Wundt, and, in fact, any disagreement was resolved by Wundt. Therefore, reliability or agreement among observers in Wundt's experiments only occurred due to bias induced by training.
- ''structuralism''.
- structure of mind.
- introspection
- subject was student
- William James
- Disagreed with both the structuralist approach and with the introspection methodology. He did not believe that consciousness could be broken down into basic elements. Instead he promoted functionalism which emphasized investigating the function, or purpose, of consciousness and its relation to behavior rather than its structure.
- American Psychology lab at Harvard.
- ''functionalist''
- didn't believe structure of mind; instead, he focused on function of mind. cognitive abilities.
- apply Darwin's evolutionary idea for problem solving, empathy, altruism, for surviving, and etc.
- Wolfgang Kohler:
- Is another German psychologist who founded the Gestalt school of thought. Gestalt theory emphasizes that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In other words Gestalt psychologists argue that studying the parts in isolation is a waste of time because organisms tend to perceive entire patterns or configurations rather than bits and pieces.
- ゲシュタルト心理学の父
- "the whole is greater than the sum of the parts"
- need to look at whole pic
- look at perception, perceptional error.
- John Watson:
- Was an American psychologist that founded the school of behaviorism. The behaviorists believe that psychology is the science of behavior not the science of the mind. And that psychological experiments should focus solely on those behaviors that are observable without reference to any mental processes. Thus, behaviorist believe that behavior is caused by the external (environment) and not the internal (or our minds).
- behaviorismでcognitionの心理学にいったん休止符をうった。
- little Albert. all behavior is learned.
- use fear.(白いラットと恐怖を関連づけ、見るだけで泣くようになった)
Timeline of the development of cognitive psychology
- 1879- Wilhelm Wundt opens 1st lab in Leipzig, Germany
- 1885- Ebbinghaus publishes his research on memory
- rate of forgetting
- 1890- William James publishes first psychology text book
- 1925- Wolfgang Kohler publishes The Mentality of Apes
- 全ての行動はtrial and errorから来ていない。insightからアイディアを得る場合も多くある。
- 1924- John Watson publishes Behaviorism
- 1956- Miller publishes The Magical Number 7 Plus or Minus 2
- STM capacity limitation
- 1957- Noam Chomsky argues against behaviorism take on language development
- Skinner language development.
- Other notable influences:
- A.I.
- Neuroscience
A.I.
- artificial intelligence
- The study of how to produce computer programs that can perform intellectually demanding tasks.(CP 6)
- Creating computers that can perform intelligent tasks.
- A.I. came out of the advent of digital computers in the late 1950’s. People were getting tired of the purely S-R approach to psychology and the RAND corporation was giving a seminar on how these computer-simulation techniques could be applied to models of human behavior.
- Plans and the Structure of Behavior. (Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960).
- Argue that behavior is planned.
- plan:
- a sequence of operations for performing a task. Essentially the same as a computer program.
- a temporally ordered sequence of operations for carrying out some task (CP 6)
neuroscience
- Relation between cognitive processes and the brain areas they activate.
- Positron-Emission Tomography (PET scan)
- diagnostic technique that uses radioactive tracers to study brain activity by measuring the amount of blood flow in different parts of the brain (CP 10)
- Function Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): MRI less invasive
- A diagnostic technique that uses magnetic fields and computerized images to locate mental operations in the brain (CP 10)
- Positron-Emission Tomography (PET scan)
- Developed in the early 90’s the fMRI: Measures cerebral blood by using a magnetic signal to detect the iron in our blood.
- Before fMRI’s there were PET scans in which the person is injected with a radioactive chemical that is absorbed by the tissue and organs. The energy from the substance is -measured as used to create a 3-D image of the organs of interest.
- Relation between cognitive processes and the brain areas they activate. (頭の形とかで脳の仕組みを、マップを作った。)
- occipital lobe: primary visual cortex
後頭葉：一次視覚野、二次視覚野などの視覚に関わる領域が含まれる(脳単)
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- The occipital lobe is our primary visual cortex. When some one damages this region through head trauma or what-not can cause cortical blindness in which the person still shows pupillary reflexes and eye-movements but there is no awareness of visual information.
- eye -> going either what path way or where path way
- parietal lobe
頭頂葉：一次体性感覚野等の感覚に関わる領域が含まれる(脳単)
-
- sense of movement. organizing higher visual type of info.
- Parietal lobe deals with body information and is also involved with the integration of sensory input primarily for the visual system. Damage to this area can result in what is called neglect. In which patients treat parts of their body or objects in part of their visual field as though they did not exist (contrlateral).
- damage -> neglect. ignore one side of object.
- temporal lobe
側頭葉:一次聴覚野等の聴覚に関わる領域が含まれる（脳単）
-
- The temporal lobe is essential for understanding language and for recognizing complex visual patterns (faces). Damage to the right temporal lobe impairs peoples memory for shapes and sounds, while damage to the left temporal lobe which is the language dominant lobe can impair a persons ability to comprehend language (Wernicke’s)
- audition, recognize faces.
- comprehension language.
- damage -> Agnosia, Broca's aphasia (cannot produce language.)
- 失語
失認とはある一つの感覚を介して対象物を認知することができない障害のことである。視覚、聴覚、触覚などの他、病態失認や半側空間無視なども失認に含まれる。
- 運動性失語
左大脳半球の下前頭回後部（ブローカ領野）周辺の損傷に関連深いことから「ブローカ失語」とも呼ばれる。発話量が少なく非流暢、一般には努力性でたどたどしい話し方、言葉の聴覚的理解面は比較的良好に保たれているのが特徴である。読み書きは、かな文字より漢字の方が良好であることが多い。病巣は中心前回とその前方領域、さらに島も含まれる場合が多い。脳梗塞による運動性失語の典型的経過は全失語のような重度の言語症状を呈するが徐々に改善したどたどしい発語が認められるといった経過である。
(wikipedia)
前頭葉：大脳皮質の約１／３を占め、大脳葉の中で最も大きい。一次運動野や運動前野等の運動に関わる領域が含まれる。さらに前方の前頭前野は高次の精神機能に関係する（脳単）
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- Frontal lobe receives sensory input from all the senses. Its is involved in our higher mental functions. ( Planning & organization). Damage to this area impairs people’s ability to solve problems, to plan, and to initiate actions.
- higher order processes.
- info from senses. use for problem solving.
- drastic affect on person's personality.
Experiments
Scientific theories.
- hypothesis
- Is a prediction, based on theory, of what will occur when we manipulate a specific variable.
- IV (independent variable)
- Is the variable that is ''manipulated'' in a experiment.
- DV (dependent variable)
- Is the variable that we are ''measuring''.
- correlations study does not always have causation relationship.
